Antarctica
Antarctica, Earth’s southernmost continent, is situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and contains the geographic South Pole. Encompassing around 5.4 million square miles (14 million square kilometers), it is larger in area than both Europe and Australia, making it the fifth-largest continent. Nearly 98% of its surface is covered by an immense ice sheet—one that holds about 70% of the planet’s fresh water. This vast expanse of ice, sometimes reaching thicknesses over two miles, dominates Antarctica’s geography and defines its extreme climate conditions.
Antarctica is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent on Earth. Winter temperatures can plummet below –80°C (–112°F) in the interior, while fierce katabatic winds sweep down from the polar plateau. Precipitation is scarce, classifying much of the continent as a polar desert. Despite these harsh conditions, Antarctica plays a crucial role in regulating Earth’s climate and ocean circulation patterns. The surrounding Southern Ocean’s cold currents help drive the global thermohaline circulation, influencing weather and climate far beyond the Antarctic region.
Though inhospitable to permanent human settlement, Antarctica supports a range of specialized life forms. Emperor and Adélie penguins breed on its icy shores, while Weddell, leopard, and crabeater seals navigate the frigid waters. During the austral summer, when temperatures moderate and sea ice retreats, migratory whales—such as humpback and minke—feed in the nutrient-rich waters. Terrestrial life is limited to hardy mosses, lichens, and microorganisms that persist in ice-free areas known as nunataks and along coastal regions.
Human presence in Antarctica is governed by the Antarctic Treaty System, established in 1959 to promote peaceful scientific collaboration and ban territorial claims or military activity. Today, scientists from around the world conduct cutting-edge research at numerous research stations, investigating topics ranging from climate change and ice-core drilling to astronomy and marine biology. Their efforts foster international cooperation and enhance our understanding of Earth’s past, present, and future.